All Features

Here is a summary of all the features of C3 and changes from C

Symbols and literals

Changes relating to literals, identifiers etc.

Added

1. 0o prefix for octal.
2. 0b prefix for binary.
3. Optional ”_” as digit separator.
4. Hexadecimal byte data, e.g x"abcd".
5. Base64 byte data, e.g. b64"QzM=".
6. Type name restrictions (PascalCase).
7. Variable and function name restrictions (must start with lower case letter).
8. Constant name restrictions (no lower case).
9. Character literals may be 2, 4, 8, 16 bytes long. (2cc, 4cc etc).
10. Raw string literals between ”`”.
11. \e escape character.
12. Source code must be UTF-8.
13. Assumes \n for new row \r is stripped from source.
14. Bit-width integer and float suffixes: u8/i8/u16/i16/… f32/f64/…
15. The null literal is a pointer value of 0.
16. The true and false are boolean constants true and false.

Removed

1. Trigraphs / digraphs.
2. 0123-style octal.
3. z, LL and ULL suffixes.

Built-in types

Added

1. Type declaration is left to right: int[4]*[2] a; instead of int (*a[2])[4];
2. Simd vector types using [<>] syntax, e.g. float[<4>], use [<*>] for inferred length.
3. Slice type built in, using [] suffix, e.g. int[]
4. Distinct types, similar to a typedef but forms a new type. (Example: the String type is a distinct char[])
5. Built-in 128-bit integer on all platforms.
6. char is an unsigned 8-bit integer. ichar is its signed counterpart.
7. Well-defined bitwidth for integer types: ichar/char (8 bits), short/ushort (16 bits), int/uint (32 bits), long/ulong (64 bits), int128/uint128 (128 bits)
8. Pointer-sized iptr and uptr integers.
9. isz and usz integers corresponding to the size_t bitwidth.
10. Optional types are formed using the ! suffix.
11. bool is the boolean type.
12. typeid is a unique type identifier for a type, it can be used at runtime and compile time.
13. any contains a typeid and void* allowing it to act as a reference to any type of value.
14. anyfault holds any fault value (see below).

Changed

1. Inferred array type uses [*] (e.g. int[*] x = { 1, 2 };).
2. Flexible array member uses [*].

Removed

1. The spiral rule type declaration (see above).
2. Complex types
3. size_t, ptrdiff_t (see above).
4. Array types do not decay.

Types

Added

1. bitstruct a struct with a container type allowing precise control over bit-layout, replacing bitfields and enum masks.
2. fault an enum type with unique values which are used together with optional.
3. Vector types.
4. Optional types.
5. enum allows a set of unique constants to be associated with each enum value.
6. Compile time reflection and limited runtime reflection on types (see “Reflection”)
7. All types have a typeid property uniquely referring to that particular type.
8. Distinct types, which are similar to aliases, but represent distinctly different types.
9. Types may have methods. Methods can be added to any type, including built-in types.
10. Subtyping: using inline on a struct member allows a struct to be implicitly converted to this member type and use corresponding methods.
11. Using inline on a distinct type allows it to be implicitly converted to its base type (but not vice versa).
12. Types may add operator overloading to support foreach and subscript operations.
13. Generic types through generic modules, using (< ... >) for the generic parameter list (e.g. List(<int>) list;).
14. Interface types, any types which allows dynamic invocation of methods.

Changed

1. typedef is replaced by def and has somewhat different syntax (e.g. def MyTypeAlias = int;).
2. Function pointer syntax is prefix fn followed by a regular function declaration without the function name.

Removed

1. Enums, structs and unions no longer have distinct namespaces.
2. Enum, struct and union declarations should not have a trailing ’;’
3. Inline typedef is not allowed. def can only be used at the top level.
4. Anonymous structs are not allowed.
5. Type qualifiers are all removed, including const, restrict, volatile
6. Function pointers types cannot be used “raw”, but must always be used through a type alias.

Introspection

Compile time type methods: alignof, associated, elements, extnameof, inf, inner, kindof, len, max, membersof, min, nan, names, params, returns, sizeof, typeid, values, qnameof, is_eq, is_ordered.

Runtime type methods: inner, kind, len, names, sizeof.

Expressions

Added

1. Expression block using {| ... |}. Somewhat similar to GCC statement expressions.
2. Array initializers may use ranges. (e.g. int[256] x = { [0..128] = 1 })
3. ?: operator, returning the first value if it can be converted to a boolean true, otherwise the second value is returned.
4. Orelse ?? returning the first value if it is a result, the second if the first value was an optional value.
5. Rethrow ! suffix operator with an implicit return the value if it was an optional value.
6. Dynamic calls, allowing calls to be made on the any and interfaces dispatched using a dynamic mechanism.
7. Create a slice using a range subscript (e.g. a[4..8] to form a slice from element 4 to element 8).
8. Two range subscript methods: [start..inclusive_end] and [start:length]. Start, end and length may be omitted for default values.
9. Indexing from end: slices, arrays and vectors may be indexed from the end using ^. ^1 represents the last element. This works for ranges as well.
10. Range assignment, assign a single value to an entire range e.g. a[4..8] = 1;.
11. Slice assignment, copy one range to the other range e.g. a[4..8] = b[8..12];.
12. Array, vector and slice comparison: == can be used to make an element-wise comparison of two containers.
13. ? suffix operator turns a fault into an optional value.
14. !! suffix panics if the value is an optional value.
15. $defined(...) returns true if the last expression is defined (sub-expressions must be valid).
16. $and(...) $or(...) perform compile time logic, and may also be written as &&& and ||| respectively.

• It does not check any elements after the first false value found for $and() also written as &&&. To check both conditions are false use: !false_condition &&& !false_condition.
• It does not check any values after the first true found for $or() also written as |||.

17. Lambdas (anonymous functions) may be defined, they work just like functions and do not capture any state.
18. Simple bitstructs (only containing booleans) may be manipulated using bit operations & ^ | ~ and assignment.
19. Structs may implicitly convert to their inline member if they have one.
20. Pointers to arrays may implicitly convert to slices.
21. Any pointer may implicitly convert to an any with type being the pointee.
22. Optional values will implicitly invoke “flatmap” on an expression it is a subexpression of.
23. Swizzling for arrays and vectors.

Changed

1. Compound literals use Type { ... } rather than (Type) { ... }
2. Operator precedence of bit operations is higher than + and -.
3. Well defined-evaluation order: left-to-right, assignment after expression evaluation.
4. sizeof is $sizeof and only works on expressions. Use Type.sizeof on types.
5. alignof is $alignof for expressions. Types use Type.alignof.
6. Narrowing conversions are only allowed if all sub-expressions is as small or smaller than the type.
7. Widening conversions are only allowed on simple expressions (i.e. most binary expressions and some unary may not be widened)

Removed

1. The comma operator is removed.

Cast changes

Functions

Added

1. Functions may be invoked using named arguments, the name is the dot-prefixed parameter name, e.g. foo(name: a, len: 2).
2. Typed varargs are declared Type... argument, and will take 0 or more arguments of the given type.
3. It is possible to “splat” an array or slice into the location of a typed vararg using ...: foo(a, b, ...list)
4. any varargs are declared argument..., it can take 0 or more arguments of any type which are implicitly converted to the any type.
5. The function declaration may have @inline or @noinline as a default.
6. Using @inline or @noinline on a function call expression will override the function default.
7. Type methods are functions defined in the form fn void Foo.my_method(Foo* foo) { ... }, they can be invoked using dot syntax.
8. Type methods may be attached to any type, even arrays and vectors.
9. Error handling using optional return types.

Changed

1. Function declarations use the fn prefix.

Removed

1. Functions with C-style varargs may be called, and declared as external functions, but not used for C3 functions.

Attributes

C3 adds a long range of attributes in the form @name(...). It is possible to create custom attribute groups using def (e.g. def MyAttribute(usz align) = { @aligned(align) @weak };) which groups certain attributes. Empty attribute groups are permitted.

The complete list: @align, @benchmark, @bigendian, @builtin, @callconv, @deprecated, @dynamic, @export, @extern, @if, @inline, @interface, @littleendian, @local, @maydiscard, @naked, @nodiscard, @noinit, @noreturn, @nostrip, @obfuscate, @operator, @overlap, @priority, @private, @public, @pure, @reflect, @section, @test, @used, @unused.

Declarations

Added

1. var declaration for type inferred variables in macros. E.g. var a = some_value;
2. var declaration for new type variables in macros. E.g. var $Type = int;
3. var declaration for compile time mutable variables in function and macros. E.g. var $foo = 1;
4. const declarations may be untyped. Such constants are not stored in the resulting binary.

Changed

1. tlocal declares a variable to be thread local.
2. static top level declarations are replaced with @local. (static in functions is unchanged)

Removed

1. restrict removed.
2. atomic should be replaced by atomic load/store operations.
3. volatile should be replaced by volatile load/store operations.

Statements

Added

1. Match-style variant of the switch statement, allows each case to hold an expression to test.
2. Switching over type with typeid.
3. Unpack any to the underlying type with an any-switch.
4. nextcase to fallthrough to the next case.
5. nextcase <expr> to jump to the case with the expression value (this may be an expression evaluated at runtime).
6. nextcase default to jump to the default clause.
7. Labelled while/do/for/foreach to use with break nextcase and continue.
8. foreach to iterate over arrays, vectors, slices and user-defined containers using operator overloading.
9. foreach_r to iterate in reverse.
10. foreach / foreach_r may take the element by value or reference. The index may optionally be provided.
11. $if, $switch, $for, $foreach statements executing at compile time.
12. $echo printing a message at compile time.
13. $assert compile time assert.
14. defer statement to execute statements at scope exit.
15. defer catch and defer try similar to defer but executes only on optional exit or regular exit of scope respectively.
16. do statements may omit while, behaving same as while (0)
17. if may have a label. Labelled if may be exited using labelled break.
18. asm blocks for inline assembly.
19. if-try statements allows you to run code where an expression is a result.
20. if-catch statements runs code on fault. It can be used to implicitly unwrap variables.
21. Exhaustive switching on enums.

Changed

1. Switch cases will have implicit break, rather than implicit fallthrough.
2. assert is an actual statement and may take a string or a format + arguments.
3. static_assert is $assert and is a statement.

Removed

1. goto removed, replaced by labelled break, continue and nextcase.

Compile time evaluation

Added

1. @if(cond) to conditionally include a struct/union field, a user-defined type etc.
2. Compile time variables with $ prefix e.g. $foo.
3. $if...$else...$endif and $switch...$endswitch inside of functions to conditionally include code.
4. $for and $foreach to loop over compile time variables and data.
5. $typeof determines an expression type without evaluating it.
6. Type properties may be accessed at compile time.
7. $define returns true if the variable, function or type exists.
8. $error emits an error if encountered.
9. $embed includes a file as binary data.
10. $include includes a file as text.
11. $exec includes the output of a program as code.
12. $evaltype takes a compile time string and turns it into a type.
13. $eval takes a string and turns it into an identifier.
14. $extnameof turns an identifier into its string external name.
15. $nameof turns an identifier into its local string name.
16. $qnameof turns an identifier into its local string name with the module prefixed.
17. Compile time constant values are always compile time folded for arithmetic operations and casts.
18. $$FUNCTION returns the current function as an identifier.

Changed

1. #define for constants is replaced by untyped constants, e.g. #define SOME_CONSTANT 1 becomes const SOME_CONSTANT = 1;.
2. #define for variable and function aliases is replaced by def, e.g. #define native_foo win32_foo becomes def native_foo = win32_foo;
3. In-function #if...#else..#endif is replaced by $if, #if...#elif...#endif is replaced by $switch.
4. For converting code into a string use $stringify.
5. Macros for date, line etc are replaced by $$DATE, $$FILE, $$FILEPATH, $$FUNC, $$LINE, $$MODULE, $$TIME.

Removed

1. Top level #if...#endif does not have a counterpart. Use @if instead.
2. No #include directives, $include will include text but isn’t for the same use.

Macros

Added

1. macro for defining macros.
2. “Function-like” macros have no prefix and has only regular parameters or type parameters.
3. “At”-macros are prefixed with @ and may also have compile time values, expression and ref parameters, and may have a trailing body.
4. Type parameters have the prefix $ and conform to the type naming standard (“$TypeFoo”).
5. “ref” parameters are declared using with a & prefix operator. This is similar to C++ ref parameters.
6. Expression parameters are unevaluated expressions, this is similar to arguments to #define.
7. Compile time values have a $ prefix and must contain compile time constant values.
8. Any macro that evaluates to a constant result can be used as if it was the resulting constant.
9. Macros may be recursively evaluated.
10. Macros are inlined at the location where they are invoked.
11. Unless resulting in a single constant, macros implicitly create a runtime scope.

Removed

1. No #define macros.
2. Macros cannot be incomplete statements.

Features provided by builtins

Some features are provided by builtins, and appears as normal functions and macros in the standard library but nonetheless provided unique functionality:

1. @likely(...) / @unlikely(...) on branches affects compilation optimization.
2. @anycast(...) casts an any with an optional result.
3. unreachable(...) marks a path as unreachable with a panic in safe mode.
4. unsupported(...) similar to unreachable but for functionality not implemented.
5. @expect(...) expect a certain value with an optional probability for the optimizer.
6. @prefetch(...) prefect a pointer.
7. swizzle(...) swizzles a vector.
8. @volatile_load(...) and @volatile_store(...) volatile load/store.
9. @atomic_load(...) and @atomic_store(...) atomic load/store.
10. compare_exchange(...) atomic compare exchange.
11. Saturating add, sub, mul, shl on integers.
12. Vector reduce operations: add, mul, and, or, xor, max, min.

Modules

1. Modules are defined using module <name>. Where name is on the form foo::bar::baz
2. Modules can be split into an unlimited number of module sections, each starting with the same module name declaration.
3. The import statement imports a given module.
4. Each module section has its own set of import statements.
5. Importing a module gives access to the declarations that are @public.
6. Declarations are default @public, but a module section may set a different default (e.g. module my_module @private;)
7. @private means the declaration is only visible in the module.
8. @local means only visible to the current module section.
9. Imports are recursive. For example, import my_lib will implicitly also import my_lib::net.
10. Multiple imports may be specified with the same import, e.g. import std::net, std::io;.
11. Generic modules have a set of parameters after the module name module arr(<Type, LEN>);
12. Generic modules are not type checked until any of its types, functions or globals are instantiated.

Contracts

1. Doc comments (starting with /**) are parsed.
2. The first part, up until the first @ directive is ignored.
3. The @param directive for pointer arguments may define usage constraints [in] [out] and [inout].
4. Pointer argument constraints may add a & prefix to indicate that they may not be null, e.g. [&inout].
5. Contracts may be attached to generic modules, functions and macros.
6. @require directives are evaluated given the arguments provided. Failing them may be a compile time or runtime error.
7. The @ensure directive is evaluated at exit - if the return is a result and not an optional.
8. return can be used as a variable identifier inside of @ensure, and holds the return value.
9. @return! optionally lists the errors used. This will be checked at compile time.
10. @pure says that no writing to globals is allowed inside and only @pure functions may be called.

Benchmarking

1. Benchmarks are indicated by @benchmark.
2. Marking a module section @benchmark makes all functions inside of it implicitly benchmarks.
3. Benchmarks are usually not compiled.
4. Benchmarks are instead only run by the compiler on request.

Testing

1. Tests are indicated by @test.
2. Marking a module section @test makes all functions inside of it implicitly tests.
3. Tests are usually not compiled.
4. Tests are instead only run by the compiler on request.

Safe / fast

Compilation has two modes: “safe” and “fast”. Safe will insert checks for out-of-bounds access, null-pointer deref, shifting by negative numbers, division by zero, violation of contracts and asserts.

Fast will assume all of those checks can be assumed to always pass. This means that unexpected behaviour may result from violating those checks. It is recommended to develop in “safe” mode.

If debug symbols are available, C3 will produce a stack trace in safe mode where an error occurs.